Preschool Art Easel Interest - Learning Center Ideas

The Art Easel does not just have to be for paint! Although paint is the primary medium used at an easel, let's get creative and find ways to attract the children who don't typically use art materials very often!

Of course, it is an easel where most times painting as a form of art is offered. However, it can be much, much more! You do not ONLY need to have paint and brushes at your easel, although that is the most popular item in my classroom (and most other preschool classrooms!).

Early Childhood Education

The most common items used in this area are paint, large or small paint brushes and paint cups.
Placement of your easel should be near other active interest centers. This center typically will have two to four children using it at one time (if yours is two-sided) and they do love to talk and ask questions about each others creations!

Preschool Art Easel Interest - Learning Center Ideas

Keep in mind that paint gets EVERYWHERE! On the walls, on the floor and on the children! It is therefore best to not have this center in the flow of main traffic in your classroom so that the children walking by do not slip. If possible, place the easel on a floored area, not carpet. If this is not possible, place a large mat or tablecloth underneath it. In addition, hang a shower curtain or plastic tablecloth to the wall behind it...just in case!;)

What do children learn when using the Art Easel?

Activities in this area help children develop in many of the same areas they would at your Art Center or table such as:

Become more creative while using the materials.

Understand their knowledge about how to use the various materials and tools that you provide.

Build self confidence as they put their own ideas into action and make decisions as they use the materials.

Develop small motor control and coordination.

Learn about color, size and math as they experiment with color mixing, patterns and counting depending on the materials available.

How should the teacher prepare this as an Interest Learning Center?

As with any activity that encourages creativity, there is a no preparation needed other than planning and setting out the materials. Simply plan the items you want at the easel, place them in the easel trays and let the children explore!

The most important thing you, as a teacher, can do here is to encourage their thinking skills and social skills by asking "I wonder" type open ended questions:

"That is a beautiful shade of blue! How did you make that?" "I see a pattern with the shapes you are gluing on! Triangle, circle, triangle, circle, triangle. I wonder what would come next in that pattern?"

Plan It!

Be sure that part of your classroom curriculum planning includes deciding on activities for your Art Easel. There are many concepts and objectives that can be met in this area!

Preschool Art Easel Interest - Learning Center Ideas

For a list of traditional AND non-traditional items and activities for an Art Easel in preschool, visit the Art Easel Interest Learning Center Page at http://www.preschool-plan-it.com/art-easel.html

Cheryl Hatch has been working with preschool children and their families since 1995. She has over 15 years experience teaching and directing in preschool programs. She is the owner of http://www.preschool-plan-it.com

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Importance of Outdoor Water Play in Early Childhood

As children manipulate water play materials, they begin to understand why and how things happen. For example, given sinking and floating objects, a child will soon discover that just because something is large in size does not mean it will sink. Children begin to understand and experiment with concepts such as more/less, same/different, many/few, empty/full, before/after, greater than/less than, and counting. Water gives children an avenue to contemplate issues such as: What makes rain? Where does water come from? What makes mud? Children also learn physics principles such as the effects of force (increasing the water flow through increased force); effects of gravity (water runs downhill); and change in state (solid, liquid, gas).

Playing in puddles encourages the development of eye/hand coordination through pouring, squeezing, stirring, painting, scrubbing, and squirting. Children strengthen their gross motor skills by running, jumping in and pushing things through puddles. They widen their sensory experiences as they put their hands in different textures (gritty, squishy, and slimy) and different temperatures (warm, cool, and cold). Whilst for some children their puddle play remains high energy, others are lulled into an almost trance- like, contemplative state of relaxation as they repetitively pour, pound, and swoosh. In addition, social skills expand as children play cooperatively; negotiate; and share equipment, space, and materials. As a teacher, the most entrancing aspect of this kind of play is witnessing the creative abilities of the children unfurl as they develop a seemingly endless array of imaginative scenarios based on their puddle, and use rich language to convey their ideas to others.

Early Childhood Education

Early childhood teachers should encourage children to embrace the outdoors in all its variations, and aim to suppress our 'adult' squeamishness about getting wet, or dirty. It is wonderful to see children coming to kinder in clothes that allow them to fully participate in all of these outdoor delights, regardless of weather. The memories that are created through these kinds of experiences last a lifetime.

Importance of Outdoor Water Play in Early Childhood

Importance of Outdoor Water Play in Early Childhood

For more information on Early childhood education and child development please go to http://www.jackandjillbeaumaris.com.au/

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Child Psychology - Late Childhood

Characteristics of late childhood:

Late childhood extends from 6 years to 12 years. By 12, the child becomes sexually mature. For most young children, there is a major change in the pattern of their lives. While adjusting to the new demands and expectations, most children are in a state of disequilibrium. They are emotionally disturbed. Many changes take place in attitudes, values and behavior. During the last year or two, marked physical changes take place. The physical changes at the end of this stage create a disequilibrium resulting in the disturbance of accustomed life style..

Early Childhood Education

It is a troublesome age by which the children are no longer willing to do what they are told to do. Older children, especially boys, are careless about their clothes and other material possessions. Such an age is called as the sloppy age. Again it is regarded as a quarrelsome age because we can see the boy child and girl child often indulged in mini quarrels.

Child Psychology - Late Childhood

It is at this stage that the children acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are considered as essential for successful adjustment to adult life.

Again there is a gang spirit in which the major concern is the acceptance by the age-mates in a gang. There is a team spirit in play activities and creative works.

Physical growth gives a predictable future in body structure with reference to weight and height. Physical growth in sex matters, become more pronounced. Puberty growth spurt a little later for boys than girls.

Skills developed are as follows:

i) Play skills

ii) School skills

iii) Self help skills

iv) Social help skills

v) Hand skills

vi) Speech skills

vii) Pronunciation skills

viii) Vocabulary skills

ix) Health maintenance skills

Other notable behaviors are as follows:

i) Unpleasant emotions are socially unacceptable

ii) Expression of anger in moodiness

iii) Heightened emotional expressions

iv) Learning to curb external emotional expressions

v) Boys have more extensive peer groups than girls

vi) Not satisfied with associates

vii) Aim for socio-metric status in age-mates

viii) Desire for leadership in peers

ix) Constructive play activities

x) Exploring and collecting things

Child Psychology - Late Childhood

Parenting early childhood needs more knowledge which can be had by visiting care taking of babies AND Anger management for children

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Importance of Early Childhood Education

Early childhood generally encompasses the first eight years in the life of an individual. The education given during these years of a child's life plays a very important role and helps in proper development of children. Early childhood education can be fundamentally termed as "Learning through play". Recent research have shown that early eight years in any children life are crucial time because during this phase their brain develops and much of its 'wiring' is laid down. The education experiences and relationships a child has along with nutrition can actually affect child mental growth enormously. While good early childhood education helps the brain to develop in healthy ways, improper education or study without play on other hand may affect brain development in different manner. So the experiences and the learning of a child in early years can support them in their entire life.

Recent studies of early childhood education have even shown some remarkable success. It resulting effects on child motivation and learning power last for a long time. Today where education has become very important role to play in a society, it is not right to postpone investing in children education until they become adults, nor wait till they reach school age. In fact early childhood is a vital phase of life in terms of a child's intellectual, emotional and social development. Besides this, the most important point to know is that the growth of mental abilities is at an astounding rate and high proportion of learning takes place during this period.

Early Childhood Education

It is very important for every parent to understand that a child spends first eight years in realization of his or her own identity. These are very crucial years when children gain a sense of self and learn to associate themselves with the people around them. They develop an understanding and behavior to a certain extent. For this reason it is suggested that early childhood education during these years should be more focused on teaching children about the world around them through play and establish the links. Moreover, many child development experts also agree that play is very important in the learning and emotional development of children. A play can be multi-facet and often helps in educating different skills in children. In addition to this, education through play also helps them learn social skills, and develop values and ethics.

Importance of Early Childhood Education

Certainly, today it won't be wrong to say that early childhood education is the key element that helps in building a god foundation for child's educational success. Every child learns habit and form patterns that are not easily changed in later years. If parents and educators can develop productive early education patterns for the children in their charge, those children will be on their way to achieving great educational success. The lack of parental interaction during early childhood can negatively impact a child's development. Ultimately it is the equal responsibility of the parents and tutors to assure the children have a good early childhood education that can further help them develop their personalities.

Importance of Early Childhood Education

Looking for career options in early childhood education? Find the list of top education schools or universities for courses or programs in early childhood education in United States or Canada. Also find top education schools and teaching degrees for start career in teaching.

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The Importance of Secure Attachments in Childhood

Attachment may be described as a bond or an affectionate tie between a child and it's primary caregiver, characterized by a loving and enduring relationship. All theories of infant social and emotional development emphasis the child's relationship to parents and other caregivers. One reason for this emphasis is the assumption that an attachment between child and caregiver is important for providing a foundation of emotional security for the child, and forms a basis for the parent's later influences on the child.

A prominent figure in the study of attachment behaviors is Mary Ainsworth. Using a technique known as the strange situation, Ainsworth was able to identify 3 different patterns of attachment that emerge in children at around 8 months of age. She felt all children could be classified into one of these three attachment patters;

Early Childhood Education

a)secure attachment

The Importance of Secure Attachments in Childhood

b)insecure-resistant attachment

c) insecure-avoidant attachment.

It is becoming increasingly known that securely attached infants tend to be more socially competent than insecurely attached infants. Studies show that children classified as securely attached are rated by teachers as having enhanced popularity and social skills. They also seem to be less prone to bullying from other children. Why might this be so ?

Enhanced social competence may be explained by findings that secure attachment is associated with higher self-esteem, autonomy and empathy towards others. Studies show that securely attached infants have a healthy sense of self, in that they tend to acknowledge mostly positive traits about themselves, whilst also being aware of their imperfections. On the other hand, insecurely attached infants tend towards an excessively negative or positive view of themselves (depending on the type of insecure attachment). It is probable that the qualities linked with secure attachment make children more likeable, popular and attractive, leading to better friendship networks..

Significantly, socially competent and self-confident individuals are likely to make better relationships with others, whilst also mingling with peers of similar social standing. This means that secure attachment in early infancy seems to lead to a greater quality and quantity of social experience, leading to a continuously progressive social development through childhood and adolescent years. This is an ongoing cycle of events, appearing to have it's origins in early attachment formation.

The question should be raised - how does this social competence and heightened self esteem develop ? Under Piagetian thought, a child gains knowledge by acting upon the environment - the more experience that a child can gain, the more learning that occurs. Research findings indicate that secure attachment is associated with greater exploratory behavior in infancy. For example, when kindergarten aged children are placed in cognitively challenging situations, those who are classified as being securely attached display more sophisticated make believe play and greater persistence and enthusiasm on problem solving tasks at 2 years of age. In contrast, insecurely attached infants do not show such behaviors. Secure attachments are more likely to lead to curiosity about the environment, and a heightened willingness to explore. John Bowlby would describe this phenomenon as the product of a 'secure base', which a child can leave and move away from, knowing it will be there on his or her return. Children who have a secure base (i.e. they have trust and a sense of security in the availability of their parents) tend to have a secure attachment, and are less likely to display clingy, anxious behavior when in a social setting.

It is also known that securely attached individuals display greater co-operation with their parents. Such behaviour may have beneficial effects upon social development since these infants are better likely to listen and interact with their parents, leading to enhanced learning and gaining of experience from them. On the other hand, an insecurely attached child who is uncooperative may miss out on parental efforts to teach or help them, and ultimately may even discourage the parents from trying to assist the child.

Perhaps the best way to understand the importance of attachment formation would be to observe the effects where it has been hampered or obstructed. There are a number of studies showing the detrimental effects of attachment figure deprivation on social development - rhesus monkeys have been isolated at birth and deprived of all social and environmental stimulation. When placed in free play sessions with others, these monkeys display severe developmental deficits and withdrawal.

Similar research with human infants has focused on the developmental outcomes of institutionalization (for example, in Romanian orphanages). Such children have been observed to be more withdrawn, rarely approach adults or seek reassurance if in distress. These children also tend to be more attention seeking and consequently more disruptive in school than children reared in home environments. Even 'good' institutional rearing at an early age is associated with behavioral problems in childhood and personality problems in adulthood. The lack of a dependable attachment figure seems to unsettle these children, in the formative phase of their personality development.

There is a growing amount of research to suggest that insecurely attached individuals can benefit from early therapy and social care. The introduction of affectionate and responsive caregivers has been shown to have positive developmental effects upon children previously devoid of a secure attachment. Parenting courses which have an emotional and relationship focus, can also help. Changes in the emotional and physical environment, and consistent messages of acceptance, can help a child move towards a more secure sense of self and others. Improvements in family circumstances and in parent child relationships (e.g. reduction in family stress, increase in social support) can to some degree alter the quality of attachments that have been formed.

Children who have suffered neglect, or other forms of childhood abuse, are at risk of being insecurely attached. Sometimes, parental mental health problems (including drug and substance misuse during and after pregnancy) are important precipitating factors. At other times, it may simply be a result of family stress, domestic violence and a lack of adequate social support for the parents. Clearly, it is in all our interests to support children and families to flourish in secure, safe and healthy environments. There are a number of support services in both the voluntary and statutory sectors, working hard to make this aspiration a reality. Please contact me, or visit my website, for further details.

The Importance of Secure Attachments in Childhood

Dr Bobby Sura

Consultant Clinical Psychologist

Systemic Family Therapist

http://www.clinicalpsychologydirect.com

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20 Biggest Grant Making Foundations For Christian Organizations

The question of what foundations to turn to for funding is one Christian ministries and churches ponder over all the time. There are of course various factors to consider. The degree of compatibility between your mission and the aims of a foundation remains the most important consideration. But at a time when foundation funding is declining, it helps to know which foundations are giving the most - along with knowing a little about their overall purpose, the kinds of Christian organizations they fund, and the kinds of programs that interest them.

The following are the top 20 Christian grant funding sources in terms of funding generosity.

Early Childhood Education

1. Of all the Christian grant foundations accepting applications at this time the Alharetta, Georgia-based National Christian Foundation (NCF) provides the most funds. Seeking to further the gospel of Jesus Christ, its funding territory is national. This is largely a donor advised fund. A donor-advised fund is a charitable giving vehicle administered by a third party and created for the purpose of managing charitable donations on behalf of an organization, family, or individual. A donor-advised fund offers the opportunity to create an easy-to-establish, low cost, flexible vehicle for charitable giving as an alternative to direct giving or creating a private foundation.

20 Biggest Grant Making Foundations For Christian Organizations

NCF helps individuals and families plan their giving through such programs as the Legacy Fund (after death giving). It advises them on asset giving (cash, stocks, real estate, business interests, restricted securities) and shows them how to balance income needs and estate planning goals (through charitable trusts and charitable gift annuities.)

The Single Charity Fund allows supporters to donate all kinds of assets; the Professional Advisors group - comprised of financial planners, CPA's, attorneys, and more - advises supporters in the art of tax-efficient giving.

2. The Christian Aid Ministries is a foundation based in Berlin, Ohio. Having an international gift giving scope, the Ministries seeks to "provide spiritual and material assistance such as food, clothing, medicine, and Christian literature to needy people in various countries." It also provides emergency funds and in-kind gifts. The Ministries supports Amish, Mennonite, and other conservative Anabaptists as they minister to the physical and religious needs of people worldwide. It aids victims of war, famine, and natural disasters.

3. The Nehemiah Corporation is a foundation out of Sacramento, California. Its mission is to facilitate "home ownership and asset development opportunities for diverse populations in underserved neighborhoods across the U.S., while maintaining a commitment to successful, responsible homeownership." It gives mostly to California foundations and individuals and to Christian organizations that support its mission.

4. The Trinity Christian Center of Santa Ana is a foundation from Tustin, California. It supports Christian services and organizations that seek to spread the gospel around the world. It provides care, comfort, and emergency aid to the sick, the disabled, the homeless. It is also known for producing televised religious broadcasts for ministries that spread the gospel worldwide.

5. The Barnabas Foundation is a foundation from Tinley Park, Illinois that supports its nearly 200 member Christian ministries through planned giving and estate planning. Its participating churches include Legacy Churches, Good Steward Ministry Churches, Member Asset Management Churches, Member Churches. It also offers stewardship education as well as development programs that facilitate stewardship "based on God's ownership of all gifts."

6. The J. Bulow Campbell Foundation is an independent foundation from Atlanta, Georgia. The foundation seeks to uplift "intellectual and spiritual life, preferably projects of a permanent nature or for capital funds." It does not fund operating expenses or recurrent programs except in cases where funding might allow a significant new program to succeed without continuing support from the foundation. It gives anonymously to church-related agencies of the Presbyterian Church, but not to congregations. It mostly supports organizations in Georgia, though it does give to organizations in Alabama, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee.

7. The Rupert H. Johnson Foundation is an independent foundation in San Mateo, California that generally funds only educational programs in California and Virginia. Only Christian organizations seeking grants for education programs in these two geographic regions would be eligible for funding.

8. The Rees-Jones Foundation, a family foundation based in Dallas, Texas, funds "programs that help improve the quality of life for the underserved of north Texas." It provides employee/matching gifts and funds capital campaigns, general operations, management and program development, and scholarship funds. It supports churches that seek to relieve hunger, and it provides medical care for the mentally and physically disabled, educational opportunities for youth, and affordable housing, shelter, and spiritual development for those left behind.

9. The Poplar Foundation is an independent foundation that mostly gives within its base of Memphis and the metropolitan area. It funds mostly youth services and education. Ministries that focus on these two areas are eligible for funding.

10. The Wege Foundation, an independent foundation in Grand Rapids, Michigan, gives mostly within Kent County and above all in Grand Rapids. Christian agencies that provide health, human services, and education are likelier to receive funding from the foundation than those that do not. It funds annual campaigns, building/renovation, capital campaigns, curriculum development, endowments, equipment, matching/challenge campaigns, and program development.

11. The Hope Christian Community Foundation is a Christian public charity community foundation in Memphis, Tennessee that "helps Christians share their wealth with others in the most thoughtful and efficient ways." It serves ministries by administering and managing agency funds, offering a cash management pool, investing endowments, and making grants through the Hope of Memphis Fund. It partners with churches to serve the community, administer church and donor-advised funds for church members, and offer a cash management pool.

12. The Maclellan Foundation is a Chattanooga, Tennessee-based independent foundation. It gives internationally and nationally, stressing Chattanooga. It is the largest of a group of four family foundations that are committed to "fulfilling the Great Commission of Jesus Christ through strategic giving." The foundation provides financial and leadership training to local organizations that enhance the spiritual wellbeing of the Commission by working "to extend the Kingdom of God to every tribe, nation, person, and tongue." Toward that end, the foundation offers consulting services, equipment, general/operating support, program development and evaluation, and seed money to Christian organizations.

13. The New York City-based American Bible Society is a foundation that translates, publishes, and distributes the Bible in every language it can. The Society wants every person "to experience the Bible's life changing message." It collaborates with other Christian organizations including Faith Comes by Hearing, the creator of an audio version of the Bible. Other partners are Feed the Children, the Military Ministry, Mission Year, Samaritan Purse/Operation Christmas Child, United Bible Societies, and the National Association of State and Regional Bible Societies.

14. The National Endowment Association is a public charity in Princeton, Indiana that helps small to mid-sized charities in the United States, mostly religious ministries, endow funds. The objective is to free ministries from the constant demands of fundraising so they can devote more time to their missions. The association helps them solicit long-term planned gifts, something the larger charities already have the means to do. It helps them tap into larger funding sources through tax-exempt planning. It also helps them promote their charity by offering website templates, educational classes, marketing material templates, marketing/fundraising consultation, and donor/consumer seminars.

15. The Harold Simmons Foundation of Dallas, Texas is a company-sponsored foundation. It provides grants that support zoos, arts and culture, education, energy, health, substance abuse treatment, HIV/AIDS treatment, disaster relief, athletics, human services, human rights, community development, programs that address women's issues, and Christian organizations. It gives mostly in the Dallas/Fort Worth area.

16. The Norcliffe Foundation is an independent foundation in Seattle, Washington. It gives to organizations that benefit the arts and cultural organizations, hospitals, early childhood development, higher and secondary education, and historic preservation. It also supports medical research and health associations, hospices, the environment and conservation, and social services that include programs for the disabled, the homeless, child welfare, youth agencies, and the aged. The foundation's Christian grantees are the Roman Catholic Church and religious associations. It gives mostly in the Puget Sound area of Washington, especially in Seattle.

17. The Stephen and Mary Birch Foundation of Wilmington, Delaware is an independent foundation that gives throughout the United States. It supports nonprofit institutions, communities, and organizations that support research, medical, health, educational, sports, social services, and artistic programs in communities across the nation. Christian organizations that work in any of these areas are eligible for funding.

18. The Harry J. Lloyd Charitable Trust in Overland Park, Kansas "supports God's work as described in the Great Commission by spreading evangelism throughout the world." It primarily supports organizations and programs that further this mission. The Trust provides grants that help start new ministries or new programs or expand current programs. It funds organizations that are creative, accountable, stable, and effective. It also funds Christian programs that provide housing, food, medical assistance, and education for the poor. It may also support medical research in different areas.

19. The Lynn and Foster Freiss Family Foundation is an independent foundation out of Jackson, Wyoming. It mostly funds faith-based entrepreneurial programs, especially one-one-one mentoring. The foundation provides general/operating support, matching/challenge support, and program-related investment/loans.

20. IBS-STL is a foundation from Colorado Springs, Colorado. It came about in 2007 from a merger of the National Bible Society and Send the Light. It gives nationally and internationally to Christian organizations that further its mission of translating, interpreting, and publishing the Bible. Its goal is to give more and more people throughout the world the opportunity to experience the Bible.

Some foundations exist solely to benefit Christian ministries and churches. Others lack a direct connection to Christianity but work to solve problems that are at the core of Christian concern. Some have a limited geographic focus; others have a national focus; still others have an international focus. But wherever your organization operates, and whatever programs it has, many (if not most) of these foundations are viable funding possibilities for your organization. And there are countless other possibilities. The Christian Funding Directory (CFD), Foundation Directory Online, and Foundation Search are the most valuable sources of information about foundations.

20 Biggest Grant Making Foundations For Christian Organizations

Jeffrey J. Rodman is a Certified Fund Raising Executive (CFRE) and a Certified Grants Specialist (CGS). He is an experienced grantwriter, fundraiser, nonprofit executive, and public speaker who operates Here-4-You Christian Grant Consulting and Church Grant Writing providing consultation for grant writing and funding development worldwide.Jeffrey has supervised a team of writers, researchers, editors, and administrative staff in providing consultation for grant proposal writing, nonprofit development, and fundraising in almost every state and a dozen foreign countries and has worked on proposals to Federal, State, and Local government as well as to Foundations, Civic groups, and many others. Jeffrey received his BS and his M.Ed. from George Mason University. He has written 100's proposals, secured millions of dollars in funding, and maintains a funding rate of nearly 80%. He has successfully managed over 25 different grants as a grant administrator and has also served as a grant reviewer on a state, federal, and local level as well as on foundation review panels. Jeffrey is an experienced speaker and is a Certified National Trainer for programs in Ohio, Indiana, Georgia, Pennsylvania, and Florida.

Jeffrey is heavily involved in his church particularly in areas concerning growth, outreach, and finance. He is involved with a number of local and national ministries including Teens Opposing Poverty. Jeffrey loves to play games with his kids and enjoy time with his family. Although he grew up in New York, he has lived in Virginia for almost since 1996 where he and his wife, Terri home school their four children, Alexandra (12), Mackenzie (8), Christian (6) and Kaitlyn (3).

Here-4-You Christian Grant Consulting & Church Grant Writing
Jeffrey J. Rodman, CFRE, CGS, M.Ed.
President & CEO
Website: http://www.npfunds.com
Blog: http://npfunds.com/blog
Phone: 1-866-HERE-4-U-1

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A Critique of Howard Gardner's Text - Frames of Mind

If one watched the NBA Finals in 1998, even if not a Chicago Bulls fan, one would have to be amazed to witness the graceful maneuvers of Michael Jordan in the air above the basketball rim. In the same context, to hear the brilliant vocal performance of Luciano Pavarotti may move one to ask if, in fact, it does require a special and distinct intelligence to master such demanding demonstrations of human brilliance. Or what of the complex interpersonal skills needed by a therapist to successfully establish rapport and assist individuals to make helpful and lasting change? For years, especially in the education circles, most believed such talents were the periphery of true intelligence.

Howard Gardner, a Harvard University professor and author of Frames of Mind , believes each performance mentioned above requires a unique and distinct intelligence. When Jordan evades defensive players while skillfully controlling the ball, and leaps just at the right moment to both draw a foul on the opponent and score a goal, demonstrates what Gardner terms bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. When Pavarotti thunderously exhorts a musical score from an Italian Opera, he draws upon musical intelligence. A therapist likewise taps into interpersonal intelligence to fulfill the requirements of that profession. There are four other distinct intelligences of which Gardner argues to be unique and separate: logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, and inter/intrapersonal. Logical-mathematical intelligence is sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning. This intelligence would be demanded of a mathematician or scientist. Conversely, a poet or journalist would require high linguistic intelligence: sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language. Spatial intelligence requires the capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions. Explorers such as Christopher Columbus would have required high spatial intelligence to navigate uncharted waters. Finally, a unique and separate intelligence termed inter/intrapersonal enables one to have knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences - a blessing to any therapist who may have clients with such distinct intelligence.

Early Childhood Education

In researching multiple intelligence, I came across dozens of articles, book chapters, and similar text associated with Gardner's concepts of multiple intelligence (MI). The basic concepts of MI theory is confined within Frames of Mind (1983). According to many researchers such as H. Morgan, Professor of Early Childhood at West Georgia College, the theory that multiple factors contribute to what is generally considered intelligence is not new (Morgan, 1996). As early as the 18th century Christian Wolff wrote of a facultas appetiva and a facultas cognoseitiva - a faculty for willing and a faculty for knowing.

A Critique of Howard Gardner's Text - Frames of Mind

Later, German philosophers added a third faculty for feeling. In 1939, Louis Thurstone of the University of Chicago had published evidence for seven independent mental abilities - verbal comprehension, word fluency, numerical fluency, spatial visualization, associative memory, speed of perception and reason (Miller, 1983). C.P. Snow's observation that intellectual life had become organized into two mutually uncomprehending groups, with literary intellectuals at one pole and physical scientists at the other, likewise caused a stir in 1959. Some intellectuals saw this as evidence of our failing educational system (Miller, 1983). Gardner responded to this limited scope of intellectual range by stating, "I think it has to do with the circumstances under which the intelligence test was developed. It was developed to predict who would have trouble in school. So it's basically a scholastic kind of measure, and the more you try to apply intelligence tests results to milieus like schools - which can include certain kinds of professional or business organizations-the more appropriate the IQ test is, and the more appropriate that standard definition is. But, once you move to outside of school-like settings, then the standard theory of intelligence is much less appropriate" (Koch, 1996).

According to Miller, other lists of mental faculties were compiled by the school of "common sense philosophy" in Scotland and later used in the science of phrenology in the German school headed by Franz Gall, who identified 35 faculties localized to different parts of the head. However in the middle of the 19th century, the whole conception of separate faculties was displaced by theories of association of ideas, and even in America, efforts by Horace Mann to keep the school of phrenological alive faded by the close of the 19th century (1983).

History appears to repeat itself, and according to Miller, the theory of MI, in its myriad forms, is no exception. In Frames of Mind, Gardner mentions the fact Chromsky calls these faculties organs; the philosopher Gerald Fedor calls them modules; the British psychologist Allport calls them production systems. Howard Gardner calls them intelligences (1983).The paramount question is, "Are they multiple intelligences or are they cognitive styles?" L.L. Thurstone was among the first of the intelligence test makers to suggest that the human organism was too complex for intellectual activity to be determined solely by a single human factor (Morgan, 1996). As a result Thurstone (1938) developed the Primary Mental Abilities test, a multivariate analyses as a method of measuring intellectual functioning. Thurnstone's theory suggested, much to the liking of Gardner, that intelligence could not be determined by measuring a single ability. The practice of intelligence testing began to follow the pattern of Thurstone. The work of Gardner has continued in similar fashion except perhaps for, semantics.

In analyzing Gardner's seven distinct intelligences beginning with logical-mathematical intelligence, one discovers an interesting parallel to two other cognitive styles. In the 1940s, Briggs and Meyers started developing self-report questions that would lead to assessments of individual personality types and their cognitive styles. They expanded cognitive style theory to include typological constructs from their personality theory. This concept has been referred to as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers and McCauley, 1985). As mentioned earlier, Gardner categorized logical-mathematical intelligence as the capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns and handle long chains of reasoning (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). The MBTI also identified these characteristics as cognitive learning styles employed by various personality types (Morgan, 1996, p. 266). Another learning style, The Field Independent types, approach object relations in an analytical manner with the ability to discern objects as discrete from their context. Interestingly, Gardner's Logical-Mathematical Intelligence employs practically the same description.

Morgan (1983) indicates cognitive theorists have identified three basic sensory modes of interacting with the environment. They are kinesthetic, visual, and auditory (verbal thinking). It is with "verbal thinking" we draw a close comparison to Gardner's Linguistic Intelligence - "sensitivity to meanings of words...(and) sensitivity to different functions of language (p. 266).

In criticism of Gardner's Musical Intelligence, Morgan (1983) argues the auditory component of cognitive learning styles appears to be very similar to pitch, timbre, and expressiveness in Gardner's description of Musical Intelligence. Also, how does one measure one's appreciation of the forms of musical expression? Cognitive theorists have also been somewhat skeptical of Musical Intelligence based on *End States* due to the fact the various sensory modes often mature at various stages in a child's life, so how can we predict Musical Intelligence based on these *End States?* Also, we must not neglect the importance of a child being raised in a competitive home where music is encouraged. A child, for example, with moderate ability to perform early in life, with encouragement, motivation, and interest, could excel in music later in life.

Gardner's definition of Spatial Intelligence includes the capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions (Gardner, 1983). Concerning the cognitive style, Breadth of Categorization, Kogan (1976, p. 60) describes it as the ability to set boundaries, either narrow or broad, around a central focal exemplar. According to Morgan, Spatial Intelligence as described by Gardner is highly compatible with the cognitive style construct of Breadth and Categorization (p.267). Individuals with broad categorizing cognitive styles have a greater capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world and match Gardner's concept of Spatial Intelligence. Holtzman & Klein, (1954); Santosteno, (1964); Israel, (1969) referred to these attributes as leveling and sharpening. Within the visual/figural (spatial thinking) mode of leveling and sharpening, one discovers a striking similarity to Gardner's "capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world...and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions" (Morgan, 1983. p 267).

There is a striking similarity within Gardner's Bodily-Kinesthetic category (abilities to control one's body movements and handle objects skillfully) with the work of cognitive style investigations related to sensory modalities and motor control. Kinesthetic (motoric thinking), is one of three cognitive style basic modalities found within the framework of Gardner's Linguistic Intelligence. Motoric thinking as described in cognitive style theory is essential to body movement and control (Morgan, 1983, p. 267).

Other criticisms of Gardner's Bodily-Kinesthetic theory is delineating between non-competitive performance and athletic performance on the playing field. According to Elias, (1979); Einstein, (1979); Fiske, (1977) allude to a sensory-active cognitive style that tends to guide the information processing for certain individuals, such as Black and Hispanic students. In other words, the information processing for the athlete on the playing field could be drastically different from that within a non-competitive situation. These researchers discovered Black and Hispanic students tend to perform better in classrooms that are not silent.

The final Intelligence identified by Gardner is Interpersonal and intrapersonal Intelligence. Briefly, Gardner's has identified the absence or presence of external (interpersonal), and internal (intrapersonal) social skills as *intelligences.*Cognitive style theorists have defined these characteristics with the domains of Field Independent and/or Field Dependent characteristics employed by individuals during social encounters (Morgan, 1996). Another contrast with Gardner's theory on inter/intra intelligences can be found in the work of Bieri (1961) who identified the bimodal cognitive style labeled Cognitive Complexity vs. Cognitive Simplicity - the constructs by which individuals define their personal and social world. These constructs compare with Gardner's *capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperments, and desires of other people" (Morgan, 1996, p. 268).

With regard to the arguments supporting cognitive learning styles as opposed to Multiple Intelligence, the debate will inevitably continue. Many researchers, educators, and practitioners have much invested in support of the MI theory. Despite the semantical difference in terms intelligence or cognitive learning styles, the overarching benefit of Gardner's work was to silence the proponents of the single factor constructs of intelligence. In summary, Miller (1983) states, "The value of Frames of Mind lies less in the answers it proposes that in the problems it poses. They are important problems, and time spent thinking about them will be time well spent, whether or not your conclusions agree with Mr. Gardner's."

References:

Bieri, J. (1961) Complexity - Simplicity as a personality variable in cognitive performance behavior.
Functions of Varied Experience. Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books

Gardner, H. & Hatch. (1989). Multiple Intelligences go to school: Educational implications of the theory of Mulitple Intelligences.

Educational Researcher 18, (8), 4-10

Holtzman, P.S. & Klein, G.S. (1954). Cognitive system principles of leveling and sharpening individual differences in assimilation effects in visual time error. Journal of Psychology 37, 105-122

Kogan, N. (1976). Cognitive Styles In Infancy and Early Childhood. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum

Miller, G. (1983). Varieties of Intelligence. New York Times Review . Dec 25, 5 & 20

Morgan, H. (1996). An Analysis of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Roeper-Review. Vol 18,4, pp. 263-269

Myers. I. B. and McCauley, M.H. (1985). Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologist Press

Koch, C. (1996). The Bright Stuff. CIO magazine. Mar. 15

Santostefano, S. G. (1964). A developmental study of the cognitive control leveling-sharpening. Merrill- Palmer Quarterly 10. 343-360

Thurston, L.L. (1938). Primary Mental Abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

A Critique of Howard Gardner's Text - Frames of Mind

Glenn Schuyler
Walden University Student
1998-2004
http://microjumps.com/articles

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