Masturbation in Young Children

Masturbation is a very normal and natural act amongst young children. Some early childhood experts state that the practice begins in the baby stage; many young male infants have an oft observed habit of rubbing their genital areas presumably in an effort to pleasure themselves. Some even suggest that the practice of masturbation begins in the womb, an ultrasound of the developing baby may prove this claim.

Problems arise when young children are scolded and corrected over their masturbatory activities; this causes unnecessary fear, guilt and worry in the lives of exploring infants. Perhaps a discussion about personal discretion is in order but negative conditioning about sex and sexuality often occurs in early childhood owing to the shown disdain by parental and other adult figures in the child's life. An aggressively expressed introduction to sexual education is definitely not the way to go!

Early Childhood Education

Masturbation is an ubiquitously common activity that prepares young children for later sexual awakening in pubescence. In fact the lifetime attitude of individuals concerning their bodies and sexual pleasure can be set in place from a very early age. Depending on the personal attitudes displayed by parents, either positive or negative, this will affect the psycho-sexual conditioning of the young child.

Masturbation in Young Children

Adding to this, the sexual education that many children learn from the school playground often adds to the confusion surrounding sex and body sense. So it is crucially important that a sound sexual education begins in the home well before the first school-day.

When a child is observed touching their bodies in a stimulating fashion this is often a good time for a parent to have a sexual discussion with the minor. Great care must be taken so as not to put in place negative perceptions of sex and masturbation in the child's mind.

The inability of western society to discuss sex and the prevalent attitudes to sexual knowledge are alarming to say the least. Is it any wonder that impotence and general sexual frustration runs rife among the adult population? Research has shown that many sexual problems from molestation to rape fantasies are often promulgated in childhood. Surely this alone is sufficient reason to start healthy sexual education at a young age.

Let's get real about sexual pleasure and masturbation and give our children a healthy perspective for life. Sex is natural, sex is fun, masturbation is for everyone!

Masturbation in Young Children

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The Preparation For Leadership

Introduction

Generally, people ascribe the success or failure of a leader to their qualification or fitness to lead. For this reason when leaders are sought in the secular world, the qualifications of the individuals are usually given primary considerations. On the contrary, a close examination of the call of great leaders God used in the Bible reveals that God was not primarily concerned about qualifications. Eims Leroy, observed that Leaders like Moses, Gideon and Jeremiah openly confessed their inadequacy to perform the task God called them to do.1 If God was looking for qualified men then he would not have called them.

Early Childhood Education

Does it then mean that preparations are not necessary for Leadership? According to Gottfried Osei-Mensah, there are prerequisites for spiritual leadership.2 This statement implies that some form of preparation is necessary. In addition, it is clear from scripture that every leader that God used had certain qualities or abilities that were necessary in performing their task. This observation however poses a question: Were those leaders prepared for their calling or did they just happen to have the qualities God required? With God, things do not happen by chance, therefore the thesis of this article is, those whom God used in the Bible as leaders were always prepared for their task.

The Preparation For Leadership

To clarify this thesis statement selected leaders in the Bible are examined. The goal is, first to prove that the leaders were prepared for leadership and second, to determine the nature of the preparation and its importance to the leaders' call.

The following three categories of leaders have been selected for this study:

a) Those whose call and commission came as a surprise to them
b) Those who were mentored by their predecessor
c) Those who assumed leadership as a result of a crisis.

Under each leader the presentation will also be divided into three sections:

a) His life history before his call to leadership;
b) His leadership role and achievements;
c) Summary of the specific ways he was prepared for leadership. Finally an

evaluation would be made and conclusions drawn.

A. LEADERS WHOSE CALL AND COMMISSION CAME AS A SURPRISE

Among the leaders whose call and commission came as a surprise were Moses and Paul. These were leaders who had personal encounter with God whilst they were pursuing their own goals in life. These leaders would now be discussed individually to determine how each of them was prepared for leadership.

Moses

a) His life history before his call to leadership

The Bible, in Exodus Chapter 2-5, discusses the life of Moses from the time of his birth to that of his call. According to this section, Moses was born in Egypt by Hebrew parents. But because of an edict by Pharaoh to kill all the Hebrew baby boys, his mother was unable to raise him up from childhood to adulthood. However, by what can be termed divine providence, Howard F. Vos stated that Moses probably spent the first two or three 'years of his life with his own mother.3 The remaining period of his first forty years was spent in the palace as an adopted son of Pharaoh's daughter. Commenting on the years Moses spent in Pharaoh's palace, John C. Maxwell observed that he received the best of what Egypt offered both physically as well as intellectually. Maxwell cited Acts 7:22 which states that Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians and was mighty in words and deeds.4

In spite of the fact that he was raised up in Pharaoh's palace Moses acknowledged his Hebrew identity. He had to flee Egypt because he killed an Egyptian to protect an oppressed Hebrew. The next forty years of his life he spent in Midian tending the flock of Jethro. It was in Midian, at about 80 years of age that God made the surprised call to him.

b) His leadership role and achievements

In this section the goal is just to make a brief reflection of Moses' main task and achievements. According to John D. Hannah, in his commentary on Exodus, God commissioned Moses to deliver the children of Israel out of Egypt. He showed how that call and commission came as a complete surprise to Moses.5 Although God also promised to take the Israelites to a good and spacious land, that commission, according to Hannah, was not given to Moses. To support his point, he made reference to Stephen's statement about Moses' mission in Acts 7:35-36, implying that there was no indication that Moses was supposed to take the Israelites to the promise land.6 Moses indeed accomplished the task God gave him in spite of all his objections about his inability when God called him. This was because he accepted in faith God's assuring words that he would be with him to accomplish that mission and also because of his ambition to deliver the Israelites from slavery. Commenting on the aspect of his ambition, Ted Engstrom pointed out that "he never lost sight of his ambition and calling in life which made it possible".7 Throughout his mission these words of assurance had been a motivation for him.

In addition, Maxwell rightly observed, over the course of the years in the desert, Moses' leadership improved. He cited Jethro, Moses' father-in-law, as one person who helped to make that difference in his life.

Moses also accomplished something else that was not explicitly stated in scripture. D.A. Hubbard, in his article on the Pentateuch said that both Judaism and Christianity accepted without question the biblical tradition that Moses wrote the Pentateuch.8 These writings had been great materials not just for spiritual purpose but also for academic purpose.

Paul

a) His life history before his call to leadership

According to Act 21:39;22:3, Paul was a native of Tarsus, a city of Cilicia. He was of pure Jewish descent and of the tribe of Benjamin (Phil 3:5). He was a Hebrew and a Pharisee. He spoke Greek and was familiar with Aramaic (Acts 22:2). Paul, learned tent making because it was customary that all Jewish boys learn a trade.

In his book, 'Paul the Leader', Oswald J. Sanders made this observation about Paul: "all the formative years were calculated, to prepare him to be an eminent Pharisee and Rabbi like his great mentor Gamaliel".9 Paul studied under Gamaliel, a distinguished teacher of the law and of the school of Hillel. Sanders also observe that the school of Hillel embraced a broader and more liberal view in education than that of Shammai - the other distinguished school.10 In addition, Sanders stated that unlike the school of Shammai, the school of Hillel was interested in Greek literature. In that school, Paul learned to use works of Gentile authors. He surpassed his fellow-students in both academic achievements and in zeal for both God and the tradition of his fathers. He was almost a member of the Sanhedrin, the supreme legal and civil court.11

b) His leadership role and achievements

Oswald Sanders, noted that Paul became a great spiritual leader when his heart and mind were captured by Jesus.12 Such statements could not have been made if Paul had not made great achievements in the role God gave him to perform. Another writer, Ted E. Engstrom gave the background to Paul's success: "a Jew living in a Greek city, and with a Roman citizenship. Both by birth and training Paul possessed the tenacity of the Jews, the culture of the Greeks and the practicality of the Romans, and these qualities enabled him to adapt to the people among whom he was to move"13. According to Acts Chapter 9, when Paul encountered the Lord Jesus he was commissioned to take the gospel message to the gentiles. Records of Paul's accomplishments of his commission can be found in Acts Chapters 13-28. These included missionary journeys to gentile territories, Church planting, training or teaching ministries among the gentiles and successful debates with secular philosophers.

In addition Paul also wrote thirteen of the New Testament Epistles. In these epistles he dealt with important theological concepts like justification, sanctification and the resurrection of Christ. Various portions of defense of the Christian faith against secular philosophies are also included in these epistles. According to 2Tim. 4:7, Paul was sure he accomplished God's mission for his life when he stated that he has fought the good fight, finished the race and kept the faith.

B. LEADERS WHO WERE MENTORED BY THEIR PREDECESSOR

The second categories of leaders to be examined are those who were mentored by their predecessor. Among such leaders are Joshua, who succeeded Moses and Samuel, who succeeded Eli. These two leaders will be examined individually in this section.

Joshua

a) His life history before his call to leadership

The Bible gave a brief family background of Joshua in Exodus 33:11; Num. 1:10. He was the son of Nun, the son of Elishama, head of the tribe of Ephraim. Apart from this background, there is no other information about him before he met Moses. The scriptures gave much focus to Joshua's mentoring relationship with Moses. This close working relationship between them can be traced in scripture.

According to exodus 24:13, when Moses went up Sinai to receive the two tablets for the first time Joshua accompanied him part of the way and was the first to meet him on his return (32:17). Also when the Israelites sinned by worshiping the golden calf, Moses moved the tabernacle outside the camp and left the congregation in charge of Joshua. In addition, Joshua was one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to explore the land of Canaan. It was only after about forty years of mentoring by Moses in the desert that God directed Moses to give Joshua leadership authority over the people.

In his book, 'Leadership Images from the New Testament', David Bennett mentioned four steps in developing a leader from the example of Jesus. These are:

a) To develop leaders who have learned to follow
b) To train within the context of personal apprenticeship.
c) To make commitment to the community as well as training for a task.
d) To stress on the spiritual aspects of leadership.14

These four steps can be found in the almost forty years mentoring relationship between Moses and Joshua. As Engstrom rightly puts it "Moses had the right attitude, when he knew it was time to train someone else for leadership. He was fearful of being a paternal leader and pleaded with God to give the Israelite a successor".15 This might have been one of the reasons why he devoted himself to mentor Joshua.

b) His leadership role and achievements

Joshua's role was made clear to him when he was commissioned as the leader of Israel. His call and commission was mediated through Moses. In Numbers 27:12-22 the Lord reminded Moses that he would not enter the promise Land and that Joshua would replace him. Moses obeyed the Lord's instructions and commissioned Joshua before the whole Israelite assembly. This commission kept Joshua in focus throughout his mission and he kept his faith in the one who called him. As Donald K. Campbell rightly observed, Joshua interceded for the nation when the Israelites sinned and were defeated.16 God's mandate was that Joshua would lead the Israelites to the Promise Land and he depended on him to accomplish that mandate. Commenting on the charge given to Joshua to be strong and courageous in Josh. 1:6, Campbell also said it was an affirmation that God would not let Joshua down.17 However this may also be seen as an indication that prior to the time he became Israel's leader he had potentials, which he needed to build up in leadership.

Details of how Joshua accomplished his mission have been recorded in the book of Joshua. The conquest of Canaan was however not an easy one but Joshua's training as a military leader and his dependence upon God gave him added advantage. He made mistakes but he learned from his mistakes.

Samuel

a) His life history before his call to leadership

According to John C. Maxwell, Samuel was special from the time he was born because he was an answer to prayer. He further commented that, as young child, Samuel was placed in the care of Eli the High priest and Judge of Israel.18 This revealed that the mentoring relationship between Eli and Samuel started quite early in Samuel's life. Like Joshua, Samuel stayed in the same place with his mentor. In addition, at a very early age, God began to speak directly to him and that motivated him to reverence and serve God faithfully. The role played by Hannah in initiating this mentoring relationship should not be overlooked. McChesney and Unger said that it was a vow that Hannah made to dedicate Samuel to the Lord as a Nazarite.19

b) His Leadership Role and Achievements

To better understand and appreciate Samuel's achievements, one should first examine the religious, political and social situations prior to his assumption to leadership. Eugene H, Merrill rightly observed that "the 300 or so years of the history of Israel under the Judges were marked by political, moral, and spiritual anarchy and deterioration". It was in this background, where all seemed to have failed that Samuel was groomed and also took up leadership.20

With reference to his achievements, "Samuel's level of influence with the people continued to increase throughout his lifetime. As a prophet, he was respected because he spoke from God. But in time Samuel also became Israel's Judge, a position similar to that of a king. He was the nation's civil and military leader. Samuel judged Israel all the days of his life".21 Indeed, only leaders with certain qualities can achieve what Samuel achieved. It was that kind of excellent leadership that God was looking for in order to address the deteriorating situation in Israel. Israel enjoyed a time of peace during Samuel's reign.

C. LEADERS WHO ASSUME LEADERSHIP AS A RESULT OF A CRISIS

During the period between the death of Joshua and the start of Samuel's leadership, many people ruled Israel as Judges. All of them came to leadership as a result of a crisis need. Gideon and Samson were two of the Judges who ruled Israel at that time. They will be examined in this section, as representatives of the Judges, to determine whether they were prepared for their leadership roles.

Gideon

a) His life history before his call to leadership

In Judges chapter 6-8 the Bible gave a brief historic account of Gideon's family background. He was the son of Joash the Abiezrite. He was also of the tribe of Manasseh. One may want to suggest that Gideon had no quality or potential for leadership before he became a leader. This assumption is proved wrong in the light of the angel's greetings to Gideon - "mighty man of valor" (Judg. 6:12). As Joyce Peel rightly said, "the angel calls out his hidden qualities which we see developing in the rest of the story".22

It can be seen that Gideon already had faith in God from a question he asked the angel - where are all the wonders that our fathers told us about when they said, "Did not the lord bring us up out of Egypt?" His parents have made him realize that in the past they have depended on God for survival. However, Gideon wanted an assurance that it was the God of his fathers talking to him, so he asked God to give him a sign (:17). Joyce Peel's comment on Gideon's request is that "it isn't for the sort of sign an unbeliever asks to evade a challenge but for a sign to confirm to a believer who is ready to obey".23 Gideon was convinced that God was speaking to him and based on that fact he responded to the call to meet the Midianite crisis.

b) His Leadership Role and Achievements

Gideon was called to perform a specific role and that was to deliver Israel from the Midianites. He had a clear vision in mind as to what he had to do. He also believed that he could accomplish his goal because he had the assurance of God. In addition he had inner qualities, which gave him enough courage to move into action, even though he started at night. Gideon delivered the Israelites from the Midianites' oppression but he first brought them back to faith in God. However, immediately after his death the people turned back to their foreign gods.

Samson

a) His life history before his call to leadership

In Judges Chapter 13-16 the Bible gave an account of Samson's life. Samson was the son of Manoah of Zorah and of the tribe of Dan. His birth was foretold to his parents by an angel. They were also told that he would be a Nazarite to God from the womb Iudg. 13:2-5,24). The Bible also says in Judg 3:24-25 that God blessed him and that the spirit of God began to stir him up while he was in Mahaneh Dan. From this account it can be observed that Samson was a man of unusual strength. In Hebrews 11:32 he was recognized as of the great men of faith. During Samson's time the philistines were suppressing the Israelites.

b) His leadership role and achievements

Samson's call and commission was mediated through his parents. According to Judges 13:5 he was to start the deliverance of Israel from the hands of the philistines. As John Mazwell rightly points out, "despite his good start, Samson got himself into trouble many times, and in the end he finished poorly: he was weak, blind and enslaved by the enemy from whom he was supposed to deliver his people."24 Samson had the opportunity of becoming a great leader but his despicable character destroyed his leadership.

Conclusion

Three categories of leaders have been examined in this chapter to prove that the people that God called to leadership in the Bible were always prepared for their tasks. The first category of leaders were those whose call came as a surprise to them. The second were those who were mentored by their predecessor and the third, were those who responded to a crisis. It was proved that all of these leaders had some form of preparation necessary for their particular calling. These preparations may come from God, their parents, religious background, formal education or a mentor. Therefore one could conclude that God does not call any person to leadership who had not been prepared. God's call or one preparation does not guarantee success because the preparation for effective leadership does not end with one's call.

END NOTES

1 Eims Leroy, Be The Leader You Were Meant To Be Illinois: Victor Books, 1982), pp 8-13

2 Gottfied Osei-Mensah, Wanted: Servant Leadership (Achimota: African Christian Press, 1990), pp 24-32

3 Howard F. Vos. Moses: The New Unger's Bible Dictionary (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982), p 886.

4 John C. Maxwell, The 21 Most Powerful Minutes In a Leader's Day: Revitalizing Your Spirit and Empowering your Leadership (Nashville: Thomas \nelson Publishers, 2000), p. 300.

5 John D. Hannah, Exodus: The Bible Knowledge Commentary (Colorado: Chariot Victor Publishers, 1985), p 112.

6 Ibid, P 121.

7 Ted W. Engstrom, The Making of A Christian Leader: How to develop management and human relations skills (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1976), P 29.

8 D.A. Hubbard, Pentateuch: The New Bible Dictionary (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982), p 903.

9 Oswald J. Sanders, Paul the Leader: A Vision for Christian Leadership Today (Eastboume: Kingsway Publication Ltd., 1982), pp 16/17.

10 Ibid, p 17

11 Ibid, p 19

12 Oswald J. Sanders, Spiritual Leadership (Chicago: Moody Press, 1980), p 40.

13 Ted E. Engstrom, The Making of Christian Leader: How To Develop Management and Human Relations Skills (Zondervan Publishing House, 1976), p 20.

14 David W. Bennett, Leadership Images From The New Testament: A Practical Guide (Carlisle: OM Publishers, 1998), pp 33/4

15 Ted W. Engstrom, The Making of a Christian Leader: How to develop management and human relations skill (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1976), p 30

16 Donald K. Campbell, Joshua: The Bible Knowledge Commentary (Colorado: Chariot Victor Publishing, 1984), p 326.

17 Ibid, P 328.

18 John C. Maxwell, The 21 Most Powerful Minutes In A Leader's Day: Revitalize Your Spirit and empower Your Leadership (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1982), p 67.

19 E. McChesney and Merrill F. Unger, Samuel: The New Unger's Bible Dictionary (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982), P 1121.

20 Eugene H. Merrill, Samuel: The Bible Knowledge commentary (Colorado: Chariot Victor Publishing, 1985), P 431.

21 John C. Maxwell, The 21 Most Powerful Minute in a Leader's Day: Revitalize Your spirit and Empower Your Leadership (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2000), p

22 Joyce Peel, A Journey through The Old Testament: The story of God's relationship with man. woman and the world (Oxford: The Reading Fellowship, 1993), p 60

23 Ibid, p 60

The Preparation For Leadership

Dr. Leopold A. Foullah is currently Senior Lecturer and Head of the Department of Philosophy & Religious Studies, Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone, Mount Aureol, Freetown. He is also the General Superintendent of the Missionary Church of Africa, Sierra Leone Conference. He holds the following academic qualifications: Dip.Th., B.Th., M.Div., M.Th. and Ph.D (Leeds University, England). He is interested in Biblical Theology and Social Issues. He is External Examiner for both The Evangelical College of Theology (TECT), Jui and the Sierra Leone Theological College & Church Training Center in Freetown. He is married with three children.

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5 Reasons For Elevated Blood Pressure

We all know that elevated or high BP is bad for your health, it can lead to heart disease, stroke, kidney failure and early death. You may not fully understand the scientific reasons that causes elevated BP and in fact in 90 to 95% of hypertension cases, the cause is unknown, BUT you do know that there are certain changes you can make in your life to reduce and normalize BP.

Researchers have identified 5 RISK FACTORS that causes elevated BP. Let's take a look at what they are and what you can do to lower your risk!

Early Childhood Education

Elevated Blood Pressure Reason #1: Weight & Bad Diet. It is important to note that what you currently eat (and ate in your childhood) can have a massive difference on blood pressure. A poor diet has consistently been linked to hypertension. Excess weight - is another major contributor to high BP. If you are overweight- then losing weight is a sensible first step in treating high blood pressure. Reduce the amount of fats, oils, sugar and salt in your diet and increase the amount of fruit and vegetables, cereal and fish.

5 Reasons For Elevated Blood Pressure

Elevated Blood Pressure Reason # 2: Stress. This is very often mentioned as a risk factor for high BP. If you are in a highly stressful environment at home or at work your BP will suffer. You need to find methods that help you relax and switch off which will help lower your BP. This can be a hobby such as photography, writing, gardening. Consider Yoga, Tai Chi, meditation or other stress-reducing techniques.

Elevated Blood Pressure Reason #3: Alcohol. Heavy or regular use of alcohol is another known cause for elevated blood pressure. Reducing alcohol intake can often reduce high BP without the need for any drug treatment, that is how powerful reducing or eliminating alcohol from our lives is.

Elevated Blood Pressure Reason # 4: Lack of Physical Activity. An inactive lifestyle is one of the reasons for obesity which results in increased BP. Physical Activity will also reduce your stress and lower your BP.

Elevated Blood Pressure Reason # 5: Genes. High BP seems to run in families and accounts for about half of High Blood Pressure Sufferers. Knowing how to prevent high BP is therefore important. By keeping an eye on all of the above mentioned risks, it will help reduce the risk of developing high BP.

These are just the basics you need to know about the causes of high BP and to better educate yourself to a more healthier life. However I hope that you are interested enough to know more and how to treat it successfully. Just as family doctors can't look after you 100% all the time if they are completely unaware of your everyday living, so you can't interpret their advice properly if you are completely ignorant of the nature of your high BP and what can and cannot be done about it with natural remedies or drug treatments. If not, your alternative is to let doctors make the decisions for you without your help or informed consent for the rest of your life.

5 Reasons For Elevated Blood Pressure

Get your control blood pressure guide here and reduce your chances of a heart attack!

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Preschool Art Easel Interest - Learning Center Ideas

The Art Easel does not just have to be for paint! Although paint is the primary medium used at an easel, let's get creative and find ways to attract the children who don't typically use art materials very often!

Of course, it is an easel where most times painting as a form of art is offered. However, it can be much, much more! You do not ONLY need to have paint and brushes at your easel, although that is the most popular item in my classroom (and most other preschool classrooms!).

Early Childhood Education

The most common items used in this area are paint, large or small paint brushes and paint cups.
Placement of your easel should be near other active interest centers. This center typically will have two to four children using it at one time (if yours is two-sided) and they do love to talk and ask questions about each others creations!

Preschool Art Easel Interest - Learning Center Ideas

Keep in mind that paint gets EVERYWHERE! On the walls, on the floor and on the children! It is therefore best to not have this center in the flow of main traffic in your classroom so that the children walking by do not slip. If possible, place the easel on a floored area, not carpet. If this is not possible, place a large mat or tablecloth underneath it. In addition, hang a shower curtain or plastic tablecloth to the wall behind it...just in case!;)

What do children learn when using the Art Easel?

Activities in this area help children develop in many of the same areas they would at your Art Center or table such as:

Become more creative while using the materials.

Understand their knowledge about how to use the various materials and tools that you provide.

Build self confidence as they put their own ideas into action and make decisions as they use the materials.

Develop small motor control and coordination.

Learn about color, size and math as they experiment with color mixing, patterns and counting depending on the materials available.

How should the teacher prepare this as an Interest Learning Center?

As with any activity that encourages creativity, there is a no preparation needed other than planning and setting out the materials. Simply plan the items you want at the easel, place them in the easel trays and let the children explore!

The most important thing you, as a teacher, can do here is to encourage their thinking skills and social skills by asking "I wonder" type open ended questions:

"That is a beautiful shade of blue! How did you make that?" "I see a pattern with the shapes you are gluing on! Triangle, circle, triangle, circle, triangle. I wonder what would come next in that pattern?"

Plan It!

Be sure that part of your classroom curriculum planning includes deciding on activities for your Art Easel. There are many concepts and objectives that can be met in this area!

Preschool Art Easel Interest - Learning Center Ideas

For a list of traditional AND non-traditional items and activities for an Art Easel in preschool, visit the Art Easel Interest Learning Center Page at http://www.preschool-plan-it.com/art-easel.html

Cheryl Hatch has been working with preschool children and their families since 1995. She has over 15 years experience teaching and directing in preschool programs. She is the owner of http://www.preschool-plan-it.com

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Importance of Outdoor Water Play in Early Childhood

As children manipulate water play materials, they begin to understand why and how things happen. For example, given sinking and floating objects, a child will soon discover that just because something is large in size does not mean it will sink. Children begin to understand and experiment with concepts such as more/less, same/different, many/few, empty/full, before/after, greater than/less than, and counting. Water gives children an avenue to contemplate issues such as: What makes rain? Where does water come from? What makes mud? Children also learn physics principles such as the effects of force (increasing the water flow through increased force); effects of gravity (water runs downhill); and change in state (solid, liquid, gas).

Playing in puddles encourages the development of eye/hand coordination through pouring, squeezing, stirring, painting, scrubbing, and squirting. Children strengthen their gross motor skills by running, jumping in and pushing things through puddles. They widen their sensory experiences as they put their hands in different textures (gritty, squishy, and slimy) and different temperatures (warm, cool, and cold). Whilst for some children their puddle play remains high energy, others are lulled into an almost trance- like, contemplative state of relaxation as they repetitively pour, pound, and swoosh. In addition, social skills expand as children play cooperatively; negotiate; and share equipment, space, and materials. As a teacher, the most entrancing aspect of this kind of play is witnessing the creative abilities of the children unfurl as they develop a seemingly endless array of imaginative scenarios based on their puddle, and use rich language to convey their ideas to others.

Early Childhood Education

Early childhood teachers should encourage children to embrace the outdoors in all its variations, and aim to suppress our 'adult' squeamishness about getting wet, or dirty. It is wonderful to see children coming to kinder in clothes that allow them to fully participate in all of these outdoor delights, regardless of weather. The memories that are created through these kinds of experiences last a lifetime.

Importance of Outdoor Water Play in Early Childhood

Importance of Outdoor Water Play in Early Childhood

For more information on Early childhood education and child development please go to http://www.jackandjillbeaumaris.com.au/

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Child Psychology - Late Childhood

Characteristics of late childhood:

Late childhood extends from 6 years to 12 years. By 12, the child becomes sexually mature. For most young children, there is a major change in the pattern of their lives. While adjusting to the new demands and expectations, most children are in a state of disequilibrium. They are emotionally disturbed. Many changes take place in attitudes, values and behavior. During the last year or two, marked physical changes take place. The physical changes at the end of this stage create a disequilibrium resulting in the disturbance of accustomed life style..

Early Childhood Education

It is a troublesome age by which the children are no longer willing to do what they are told to do. Older children, especially boys, are careless about their clothes and other material possessions. Such an age is called as the sloppy age. Again it is regarded as a quarrelsome age because we can see the boy child and girl child often indulged in mini quarrels.

Child Psychology - Late Childhood

It is at this stage that the children acquire the rudiments of knowledge that are considered as essential for successful adjustment to adult life.

Again there is a gang spirit in which the major concern is the acceptance by the age-mates in a gang. There is a team spirit in play activities and creative works.

Physical growth gives a predictable future in body structure with reference to weight and height. Physical growth in sex matters, become more pronounced. Puberty growth spurt a little later for boys than girls.

Skills developed are as follows:

i) Play skills

ii) School skills

iii) Self help skills

iv) Social help skills

v) Hand skills

vi) Speech skills

vii) Pronunciation skills

viii) Vocabulary skills

ix) Health maintenance skills

Other notable behaviors are as follows:

i) Unpleasant emotions are socially unacceptable

ii) Expression of anger in moodiness

iii) Heightened emotional expressions

iv) Learning to curb external emotional expressions

v) Boys have more extensive peer groups than girls

vi) Not satisfied with associates

vii) Aim for socio-metric status in age-mates

viii) Desire for leadership in peers

ix) Constructive play activities

x) Exploring and collecting things

Child Psychology - Late Childhood

Parenting early childhood needs more knowledge which can be had by visiting care taking of babies AND Anger management for children

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Importance of Early Childhood Education

Early childhood generally encompasses the first eight years in the life of an individual. The education given during these years of a child's life plays a very important role and helps in proper development of children. Early childhood education can be fundamentally termed as "Learning through play". Recent research have shown that early eight years in any children life are crucial time because during this phase their brain develops and much of its 'wiring' is laid down. The education experiences and relationships a child has along with nutrition can actually affect child mental growth enormously. While good early childhood education helps the brain to develop in healthy ways, improper education or study without play on other hand may affect brain development in different manner. So the experiences and the learning of a child in early years can support them in their entire life.

Recent studies of early childhood education have even shown some remarkable success. It resulting effects on child motivation and learning power last for a long time. Today where education has become very important role to play in a society, it is not right to postpone investing in children education until they become adults, nor wait till they reach school age. In fact early childhood is a vital phase of life in terms of a child's intellectual, emotional and social development. Besides this, the most important point to know is that the growth of mental abilities is at an astounding rate and high proportion of learning takes place during this period.

Early Childhood Education

It is very important for every parent to understand that a child spends first eight years in realization of his or her own identity. These are very crucial years when children gain a sense of self and learn to associate themselves with the people around them. They develop an understanding and behavior to a certain extent. For this reason it is suggested that early childhood education during these years should be more focused on teaching children about the world around them through play and establish the links. Moreover, many child development experts also agree that play is very important in the learning and emotional development of children. A play can be multi-facet and often helps in educating different skills in children. In addition to this, education through play also helps them learn social skills, and develop values and ethics.

Importance of Early Childhood Education

Certainly, today it won't be wrong to say that early childhood education is the key element that helps in building a god foundation for child's educational success. Every child learns habit and form patterns that are not easily changed in later years. If parents and educators can develop productive early education patterns for the children in their charge, those children will be on their way to achieving great educational success. The lack of parental interaction during early childhood can negatively impact a child's development. Ultimately it is the equal responsibility of the parents and tutors to assure the children have a good early childhood education that can further help them develop their personalities.

Importance of Early Childhood Education

Looking for career options in early childhood education? Find the list of top education schools or universities for courses or programs in early childhood education in United States or Canada. Also find top education schools and teaching degrees for start career in teaching.

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The Importance of Secure Attachments in Childhood

Attachment may be described as a bond or an affectionate tie between a child and it's primary caregiver, characterized by a loving and enduring relationship. All theories of infant social and emotional development emphasis the child's relationship to parents and other caregivers. One reason for this emphasis is the assumption that an attachment between child and caregiver is important for providing a foundation of emotional security for the child, and forms a basis for the parent's later influences on the child.

A prominent figure in the study of attachment behaviors is Mary Ainsworth. Using a technique known as the strange situation, Ainsworth was able to identify 3 different patterns of attachment that emerge in children at around 8 months of age. She felt all children could be classified into one of these three attachment patters;

Early Childhood Education

a)secure attachment

The Importance of Secure Attachments in Childhood

b)insecure-resistant attachment

c) insecure-avoidant attachment.

It is becoming increasingly known that securely attached infants tend to be more socially competent than insecurely attached infants. Studies show that children classified as securely attached are rated by teachers as having enhanced popularity and social skills. They also seem to be less prone to bullying from other children. Why might this be so ?

Enhanced social competence may be explained by findings that secure attachment is associated with higher self-esteem, autonomy and empathy towards others. Studies show that securely attached infants have a healthy sense of self, in that they tend to acknowledge mostly positive traits about themselves, whilst also being aware of their imperfections. On the other hand, insecurely attached infants tend towards an excessively negative or positive view of themselves (depending on the type of insecure attachment). It is probable that the qualities linked with secure attachment make children more likeable, popular and attractive, leading to better friendship networks..

Significantly, socially competent and self-confident individuals are likely to make better relationships with others, whilst also mingling with peers of similar social standing. This means that secure attachment in early infancy seems to lead to a greater quality and quantity of social experience, leading to a continuously progressive social development through childhood and adolescent years. This is an ongoing cycle of events, appearing to have it's origins in early attachment formation.

The question should be raised - how does this social competence and heightened self esteem develop ? Under Piagetian thought, a child gains knowledge by acting upon the environment - the more experience that a child can gain, the more learning that occurs. Research findings indicate that secure attachment is associated with greater exploratory behavior in infancy. For example, when kindergarten aged children are placed in cognitively challenging situations, those who are classified as being securely attached display more sophisticated make believe play and greater persistence and enthusiasm on problem solving tasks at 2 years of age. In contrast, insecurely attached infants do not show such behaviors. Secure attachments are more likely to lead to curiosity about the environment, and a heightened willingness to explore. John Bowlby would describe this phenomenon as the product of a 'secure base', which a child can leave and move away from, knowing it will be there on his or her return. Children who have a secure base (i.e. they have trust and a sense of security in the availability of their parents) tend to have a secure attachment, and are less likely to display clingy, anxious behavior when in a social setting.

It is also known that securely attached individuals display greater co-operation with their parents. Such behaviour may have beneficial effects upon social development since these infants are better likely to listen and interact with their parents, leading to enhanced learning and gaining of experience from them. On the other hand, an insecurely attached child who is uncooperative may miss out on parental efforts to teach or help them, and ultimately may even discourage the parents from trying to assist the child.

Perhaps the best way to understand the importance of attachment formation would be to observe the effects where it has been hampered or obstructed. There are a number of studies showing the detrimental effects of attachment figure deprivation on social development - rhesus monkeys have been isolated at birth and deprived of all social and environmental stimulation. When placed in free play sessions with others, these monkeys display severe developmental deficits and withdrawal.

Similar research with human infants has focused on the developmental outcomes of institutionalization (for example, in Romanian orphanages). Such children have been observed to be more withdrawn, rarely approach adults or seek reassurance if in distress. These children also tend to be more attention seeking and consequently more disruptive in school than children reared in home environments. Even 'good' institutional rearing at an early age is associated with behavioral problems in childhood and personality problems in adulthood. The lack of a dependable attachment figure seems to unsettle these children, in the formative phase of their personality development.

There is a growing amount of research to suggest that insecurely attached individuals can benefit from early therapy and social care. The introduction of affectionate and responsive caregivers has been shown to have positive developmental effects upon children previously devoid of a secure attachment. Parenting courses which have an emotional and relationship focus, can also help. Changes in the emotional and physical environment, and consistent messages of acceptance, can help a child move towards a more secure sense of self and others. Improvements in family circumstances and in parent child relationships (e.g. reduction in family stress, increase in social support) can to some degree alter the quality of attachments that have been formed.

Children who have suffered neglect, or other forms of childhood abuse, are at risk of being insecurely attached. Sometimes, parental mental health problems (including drug and substance misuse during and after pregnancy) are important precipitating factors. At other times, it may simply be a result of family stress, domestic violence and a lack of adequate social support for the parents. Clearly, it is in all our interests to support children and families to flourish in secure, safe and healthy environments. There are a number of support services in both the voluntary and statutory sectors, working hard to make this aspiration a reality. Please contact me, or visit my website, for further details.

The Importance of Secure Attachments in Childhood

Dr Bobby Sura

Consultant Clinical Psychologist

Systemic Family Therapist

http://www.clinicalpsychologydirect.com

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20 Biggest Grant Making Foundations For Christian Organizations

The question of what foundations to turn to for funding is one Christian ministries and churches ponder over all the time. There are of course various factors to consider. The degree of compatibility between your mission and the aims of a foundation remains the most important consideration. But at a time when foundation funding is declining, it helps to know which foundations are giving the most - along with knowing a little about their overall purpose, the kinds of Christian organizations they fund, and the kinds of programs that interest them.

The following are the top 20 Christian grant funding sources in terms of funding generosity.

Early Childhood Education

1. Of all the Christian grant foundations accepting applications at this time the Alharetta, Georgia-based National Christian Foundation (NCF) provides the most funds. Seeking to further the gospel of Jesus Christ, its funding territory is national. This is largely a donor advised fund. A donor-advised fund is a charitable giving vehicle administered by a third party and created for the purpose of managing charitable donations on behalf of an organization, family, or individual. A donor-advised fund offers the opportunity to create an easy-to-establish, low cost, flexible vehicle for charitable giving as an alternative to direct giving or creating a private foundation.

20 Biggest Grant Making Foundations For Christian Organizations

NCF helps individuals and families plan their giving through such programs as the Legacy Fund (after death giving). It advises them on asset giving (cash, stocks, real estate, business interests, restricted securities) and shows them how to balance income needs and estate planning goals (through charitable trusts and charitable gift annuities.)

The Single Charity Fund allows supporters to donate all kinds of assets; the Professional Advisors group - comprised of financial planners, CPA's, attorneys, and more - advises supporters in the art of tax-efficient giving.

2. The Christian Aid Ministries is a foundation based in Berlin, Ohio. Having an international gift giving scope, the Ministries seeks to "provide spiritual and material assistance such as food, clothing, medicine, and Christian literature to needy people in various countries." It also provides emergency funds and in-kind gifts. The Ministries supports Amish, Mennonite, and other conservative Anabaptists as they minister to the physical and religious needs of people worldwide. It aids victims of war, famine, and natural disasters.

3. The Nehemiah Corporation is a foundation out of Sacramento, California. Its mission is to facilitate "home ownership and asset development opportunities for diverse populations in underserved neighborhoods across the U.S., while maintaining a commitment to successful, responsible homeownership." It gives mostly to California foundations and individuals and to Christian organizations that support its mission.

4. The Trinity Christian Center of Santa Ana is a foundation from Tustin, California. It supports Christian services and organizations that seek to spread the gospel around the world. It provides care, comfort, and emergency aid to the sick, the disabled, the homeless. It is also known for producing televised religious broadcasts for ministries that spread the gospel worldwide.

5. The Barnabas Foundation is a foundation from Tinley Park, Illinois that supports its nearly 200 member Christian ministries through planned giving and estate planning. Its participating churches include Legacy Churches, Good Steward Ministry Churches, Member Asset Management Churches, Member Churches. It also offers stewardship education as well as development programs that facilitate stewardship "based on God's ownership of all gifts."

6. The J. Bulow Campbell Foundation is an independent foundation from Atlanta, Georgia. The foundation seeks to uplift "intellectual and spiritual life, preferably projects of a permanent nature or for capital funds." It does not fund operating expenses or recurrent programs except in cases where funding might allow a significant new program to succeed without continuing support from the foundation. It gives anonymously to church-related agencies of the Presbyterian Church, but not to congregations. It mostly supports organizations in Georgia, though it does give to organizations in Alabama, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee.

7. The Rupert H. Johnson Foundation is an independent foundation in San Mateo, California that generally funds only educational programs in California and Virginia. Only Christian organizations seeking grants for education programs in these two geographic regions would be eligible for funding.

8. The Rees-Jones Foundation, a family foundation based in Dallas, Texas, funds "programs that help improve the quality of life for the underserved of north Texas." It provides employee/matching gifts and funds capital campaigns, general operations, management and program development, and scholarship funds. It supports churches that seek to relieve hunger, and it provides medical care for the mentally and physically disabled, educational opportunities for youth, and affordable housing, shelter, and spiritual development for those left behind.

9. The Poplar Foundation is an independent foundation that mostly gives within its base of Memphis and the metropolitan area. It funds mostly youth services and education. Ministries that focus on these two areas are eligible for funding.

10. The Wege Foundation, an independent foundation in Grand Rapids, Michigan, gives mostly within Kent County and above all in Grand Rapids. Christian agencies that provide health, human services, and education are likelier to receive funding from the foundation than those that do not. It funds annual campaigns, building/renovation, capital campaigns, curriculum development, endowments, equipment, matching/challenge campaigns, and program development.

11. The Hope Christian Community Foundation is a Christian public charity community foundation in Memphis, Tennessee that "helps Christians share their wealth with others in the most thoughtful and efficient ways." It serves ministries by administering and managing agency funds, offering a cash management pool, investing endowments, and making grants through the Hope of Memphis Fund. It partners with churches to serve the community, administer church and donor-advised funds for church members, and offer a cash management pool.

12. The Maclellan Foundation is a Chattanooga, Tennessee-based independent foundation. It gives internationally and nationally, stressing Chattanooga. It is the largest of a group of four family foundations that are committed to "fulfilling the Great Commission of Jesus Christ through strategic giving." The foundation provides financial and leadership training to local organizations that enhance the spiritual wellbeing of the Commission by working "to extend the Kingdom of God to every tribe, nation, person, and tongue." Toward that end, the foundation offers consulting services, equipment, general/operating support, program development and evaluation, and seed money to Christian organizations.

13. The New York City-based American Bible Society is a foundation that translates, publishes, and distributes the Bible in every language it can. The Society wants every person "to experience the Bible's life changing message." It collaborates with other Christian organizations including Faith Comes by Hearing, the creator of an audio version of the Bible. Other partners are Feed the Children, the Military Ministry, Mission Year, Samaritan Purse/Operation Christmas Child, United Bible Societies, and the National Association of State and Regional Bible Societies.

14. The National Endowment Association is a public charity in Princeton, Indiana that helps small to mid-sized charities in the United States, mostly religious ministries, endow funds. The objective is to free ministries from the constant demands of fundraising so they can devote more time to their missions. The association helps them solicit long-term planned gifts, something the larger charities already have the means to do. It helps them tap into larger funding sources through tax-exempt planning. It also helps them promote their charity by offering website templates, educational classes, marketing material templates, marketing/fundraising consultation, and donor/consumer seminars.

15. The Harold Simmons Foundation of Dallas, Texas is a company-sponsored foundation. It provides grants that support zoos, arts and culture, education, energy, health, substance abuse treatment, HIV/AIDS treatment, disaster relief, athletics, human services, human rights, community development, programs that address women's issues, and Christian organizations. It gives mostly in the Dallas/Fort Worth area.

16. The Norcliffe Foundation is an independent foundation in Seattle, Washington. It gives to organizations that benefit the arts and cultural organizations, hospitals, early childhood development, higher and secondary education, and historic preservation. It also supports medical research and health associations, hospices, the environment and conservation, and social services that include programs for the disabled, the homeless, child welfare, youth agencies, and the aged. The foundation's Christian grantees are the Roman Catholic Church and religious associations. It gives mostly in the Puget Sound area of Washington, especially in Seattle.

17. The Stephen and Mary Birch Foundation of Wilmington, Delaware is an independent foundation that gives throughout the United States. It supports nonprofit institutions, communities, and organizations that support research, medical, health, educational, sports, social services, and artistic programs in communities across the nation. Christian organizations that work in any of these areas are eligible for funding.

18. The Harry J. Lloyd Charitable Trust in Overland Park, Kansas "supports God's work as described in the Great Commission by spreading evangelism throughout the world." It primarily supports organizations and programs that further this mission. The Trust provides grants that help start new ministries or new programs or expand current programs. It funds organizations that are creative, accountable, stable, and effective. It also funds Christian programs that provide housing, food, medical assistance, and education for the poor. It may also support medical research in different areas.

19. The Lynn and Foster Freiss Family Foundation is an independent foundation out of Jackson, Wyoming. It mostly funds faith-based entrepreneurial programs, especially one-one-one mentoring. The foundation provides general/operating support, matching/challenge support, and program-related investment/loans.

20. IBS-STL is a foundation from Colorado Springs, Colorado. It came about in 2007 from a merger of the National Bible Society and Send the Light. It gives nationally and internationally to Christian organizations that further its mission of translating, interpreting, and publishing the Bible. Its goal is to give more and more people throughout the world the opportunity to experience the Bible.

Some foundations exist solely to benefit Christian ministries and churches. Others lack a direct connection to Christianity but work to solve problems that are at the core of Christian concern. Some have a limited geographic focus; others have a national focus; still others have an international focus. But wherever your organization operates, and whatever programs it has, many (if not most) of these foundations are viable funding possibilities for your organization. And there are countless other possibilities. The Christian Funding Directory (CFD), Foundation Directory Online, and Foundation Search are the most valuable sources of information about foundations.

20 Biggest Grant Making Foundations For Christian Organizations

Jeffrey J. Rodman is a Certified Fund Raising Executive (CFRE) and a Certified Grants Specialist (CGS). He is an experienced grantwriter, fundraiser, nonprofit executive, and public speaker who operates Here-4-You Christian Grant Consulting and Church Grant Writing providing consultation for grant writing and funding development worldwide.Jeffrey has supervised a team of writers, researchers, editors, and administrative staff in providing consultation for grant proposal writing, nonprofit development, and fundraising in almost every state and a dozen foreign countries and has worked on proposals to Federal, State, and Local government as well as to Foundations, Civic groups, and many others. Jeffrey received his BS and his M.Ed. from George Mason University. He has written 100's proposals, secured millions of dollars in funding, and maintains a funding rate of nearly 80%. He has successfully managed over 25 different grants as a grant administrator and has also served as a grant reviewer on a state, federal, and local level as well as on foundation review panels. Jeffrey is an experienced speaker and is a Certified National Trainer for programs in Ohio, Indiana, Georgia, Pennsylvania, and Florida.

Jeffrey is heavily involved in his church particularly in areas concerning growth, outreach, and finance. He is involved with a number of local and national ministries including Teens Opposing Poverty. Jeffrey loves to play games with his kids and enjoy time with his family. Although he grew up in New York, he has lived in Virginia for almost since 1996 where he and his wife, Terri home school their four children, Alexandra (12), Mackenzie (8), Christian (6) and Kaitlyn (3).

Here-4-You Christian Grant Consulting & Church Grant Writing
Jeffrey J. Rodman, CFRE, CGS, M.Ed.
President & CEO
Website: http://www.npfunds.com
Blog: http://npfunds.com/blog
Phone: 1-866-HERE-4-U-1

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A Critique of Howard Gardner's Text - Frames of Mind

If one watched the NBA Finals in 1998, even if not a Chicago Bulls fan, one would have to be amazed to witness the graceful maneuvers of Michael Jordan in the air above the basketball rim. In the same context, to hear the brilliant vocal performance of Luciano Pavarotti may move one to ask if, in fact, it does require a special and distinct intelligence to master such demanding demonstrations of human brilliance. Or what of the complex interpersonal skills needed by a therapist to successfully establish rapport and assist individuals to make helpful and lasting change? For years, especially in the education circles, most believed such talents were the periphery of true intelligence.

Howard Gardner, a Harvard University professor and author of Frames of Mind , believes each performance mentioned above requires a unique and distinct intelligence. When Jordan evades defensive players while skillfully controlling the ball, and leaps just at the right moment to both draw a foul on the opponent and score a goal, demonstrates what Gardner terms bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. When Pavarotti thunderously exhorts a musical score from an Italian Opera, he draws upon musical intelligence. A therapist likewise taps into interpersonal intelligence to fulfill the requirements of that profession. There are four other distinct intelligences of which Gardner argues to be unique and separate: logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, and inter/intrapersonal. Logical-mathematical intelligence is sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning. This intelligence would be demanded of a mathematician or scientist. Conversely, a poet or journalist would require high linguistic intelligence: sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, and meanings of words; sensitivity to the different functions of language. Spatial intelligence requires the capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions. Explorers such as Christopher Columbus would have required high spatial intelligence to navigate uncharted waters. Finally, a unique and separate intelligence termed inter/intrapersonal enables one to have knowledge of one's own strengths, weaknesses, desires, and intelligences - a blessing to any therapist who may have clients with such distinct intelligence.

Early Childhood Education

In researching multiple intelligence, I came across dozens of articles, book chapters, and similar text associated with Gardner's concepts of multiple intelligence (MI). The basic concepts of MI theory is confined within Frames of Mind (1983). According to many researchers such as H. Morgan, Professor of Early Childhood at West Georgia College, the theory that multiple factors contribute to what is generally considered intelligence is not new (Morgan, 1996). As early as the 18th century Christian Wolff wrote of a facultas appetiva and a facultas cognoseitiva - a faculty for willing and a faculty for knowing.

A Critique of Howard Gardner's Text - Frames of Mind

Later, German philosophers added a third faculty for feeling. In 1939, Louis Thurstone of the University of Chicago had published evidence for seven independent mental abilities - verbal comprehension, word fluency, numerical fluency, spatial visualization, associative memory, speed of perception and reason (Miller, 1983). C.P. Snow's observation that intellectual life had become organized into two mutually uncomprehending groups, with literary intellectuals at one pole and physical scientists at the other, likewise caused a stir in 1959. Some intellectuals saw this as evidence of our failing educational system (Miller, 1983). Gardner responded to this limited scope of intellectual range by stating, "I think it has to do with the circumstances under which the intelligence test was developed. It was developed to predict who would have trouble in school. So it's basically a scholastic kind of measure, and the more you try to apply intelligence tests results to milieus like schools - which can include certain kinds of professional or business organizations-the more appropriate the IQ test is, and the more appropriate that standard definition is. But, once you move to outside of school-like settings, then the standard theory of intelligence is much less appropriate" (Koch, 1996).

According to Miller, other lists of mental faculties were compiled by the school of "common sense philosophy" in Scotland and later used in the science of phrenology in the German school headed by Franz Gall, who identified 35 faculties localized to different parts of the head. However in the middle of the 19th century, the whole conception of separate faculties was displaced by theories of association of ideas, and even in America, efforts by Horace Mann to keep the school of phrenological alive faded by the close of the 19th century (1983).

History appears to repeat itself, and according to Miller, the theory of MI, in its myriad forms, is no exception. In Frames of Mind, Gardner mentions the fact Chromsky calls these faculties organs; the philosopher Gerald Fedor calls them modules; the British psychologist Allport calls them production systems. Howard Gardner calls them intelligences (1983).The paramount question is, "Are they multiple intelligences or are they cognitive styles?" L.L. Thurstone was among the first of the intelligence test makers to suggest that the human organism was too complex for intellectual activity to be determined solely by a single human factor (Morgan, 1996). As a result Thurstone (1938) developed the Primary Mental Abilities test, a multivariate analyses as a method of measuring intellectual functioning. Thurnstone's theory suggested, much to the liking of Gardner, that intelligence could not be determined by measuring a single ability. The practice of intelligence testing began to follow the pattern of Thurstone. The work of Gardner has continued in similar fashion except perhaps for, semantics.

In analyzing Gardner's seven distinct intelligences beginning with logical-mathematical intelligence, one discovers an interesting parallel to two other cognitive styles. In the 1940s, Briggs and Meyers started developing self-report questions that would lead to assessments of individual personality types and their cognitive styles. They expanded cognitive style theory to include typological constructs from their personality theory. This concept has been referred to as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (Myers and McCauley, 1985). As mentioned earlier, Gardner categorized logical-mathematical intelligence as the capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns and handle long chains of reasoning (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). The MBTI also identified these characteristics as cognitive learning styles employed by various personality types (Morgan, 1996, p. 266). Another learning style, The Field Independent types, approach object relations in an analytical manner with the ability to discern objects as discrete from their context. Interestingly, Gardner's Logical-Mathematical Intelligence employs practically the same description.

Morgan (1983) indicates cognitive theorists have identified three basic sensory modes of interacting with the environment. They are kinesthetic, visual, and auditory (verbal thinking). It is with "verbal thinking" we draw a close comparison to Gardner's Linguistic Intelligence - "sensitivity to meanings of words...(and) sensitivity to different functions of language (p. 266).

In criticism of Gardner's Musical Intelligence, Morgan (1983) argues the auditory component of cognitive learning styles appears to be very similar to pitch, timbre, and expressiveness in Gardner's description of Musical Intelligence. Also, how does one measure one's appreciation of the forms of musical expression? Cognitive theorists have also been somewhat skeptical of Musical Intelligence based on *End States* due to the fact the various sensory modes often mature at various stages in a child's life, so how can we predict Musical Intelligence based on these *End States?* Also, we must not neglect the importance of a child being raised in a competitive home where music is encouraged. A child, for example, with moderate ability to perform early in life, with encouragement, motivation, and interest, could excel in music later in life.

Gardner's definition of Spatial Intelligence includes the capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions (Gardner, 1983). Concerning the cognitive style, Breadth of Categorization, Kogan (1976, p. 60) describes it as the ability to set boundaries, either narrow or broad, around a central focal exemplar. According to Morgan, Spatial Intelligence as described by Gardner is highly compatible with the cognitive style construct of Breadth and Categorization (p.267). Individuals with broad categorizing cognitive styles have a greater capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world and match Gardner's concept of Spatial Intelligence. Holtzman & Klein, (1954); Santosteno, (1964); Israel, (1969) referred to these attributes as leveling and sharpening. Within the visual/figural (spatial thinking) mode of leveling and sharpening, one discovers a striking similarity to Gardner's "capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world...and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions" (Morgan, 1983. p 267).

There is a striking similarity within Gardner's Bodily-Kinesthetic category (abilities to control one's body movements and handle objects skillfully) with the work of cognitive style investigations related to sensory modalities and motor control. Kinesthetic (motoric thinking), is one of three cognitive style basic modalities found within the framework of Gardner's Linguistic Intelligence. Motoric thinking as described in cognitive style theory is essential to body movement and control (Morgan, 1983, p. 267).

Other criticisms of Gardner's Bodily-Kinesthetic theory is delineating between non-competitive performance and athletic performance on the playing field. According to Elias, (1979); Einstein, (1979); Fiske, (1977) allude to a sensory-active cognitive style that tends to guide the information processing for certain individuals, such as Black and Hispanic students. In other words, the information processing for the athlete on the playing field could be drastically different from that within a non-competitive situation. These researchers discovered Black and Hispanic students tend to perform better in classrooms that are not silent.

The final Intelligence identified by Gardner is Interpersonal and intrapersonal Intelligence. Briefly, Gardner's has identified the absence or presence of external (interpersonal), and internal (intrapersonal) social skills as *intelligences.*Cognitive style theorists have defined these characteristics with the domains of Field Independent and/or Field Dependent characteristics employed by individuals during social encounters (Morgan, 1996). Another contrast with Gardner's theory on inter/intra intelligences can be found in the work of Bieri (1961) who identified the bimodal cognitive style labeled Cognitive Complexity vs. Cognitive Simplicity - the constructs by which individuals define their personal and social world. These constructs compare with Gardner's *capacities to discern and respond appropriately to the moods, temperments, and desires of other people" (Morgan, 1996, p. 268).

With regard to the arguments supporting cognitive learning styles as opposed to Multiple Intelligence, the debate will inevitably continue. Many researchers, educators, and practitioners have much invested in support of the MI theory. Despite the semantical difference in terms intelligence or cognitive learning styles, the overarching benefit of Gardner's work was to silence the proponents of the single factor constructs of intelligence. In summary, Miller (1983) states, "The value of Frames of Mind lies less in the answers it proposes that in the problems it poses. They are important problems, and time spent thinking about them will be time well spent, whether or not your conclusions agree with Mr. Gardner's."

References:

Bieri, J. (1961) Complexity - Simplicity as a personality variable in cognitive performance behavior.
Functions of Varied Experience. Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books

Gardner, H. & Hatch. (1989). Multiple Intelligences go to school: Educational implications of the theory of Mulitple Intelligences.

Educational Researcher 18, (8), 4-10

Holtzman, P.S. & Klein, G.S. (1954). Cognitive system principles of leveling and sharpening individual differences in assimilation effects in visual time error. Journal of Psychology 37, 105-122

Kogan, N. (1976). Cognitive Styles In Infancy and Early Childhood. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum

Miller, G. (1983). Varieties of Intelligence. New York Times Review . Dec 25, 5 & 20

Morgan, H. (1996). An Analysis of Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Roeper-Review. Vol 18,4, pp. 263-269

Myers. I. B. and McCauley, M.H. (1985). Manual: A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologist Press

Koch, C. (1996). The Bright Stuff. CIO magazine. Mar. 15

Santostefano, S. G. (1964). A developmental study of the cognitive control leveling-sharpening. Merrill- Palmer Quarterly 10. 343-360

Thurston, L.L. (1938). Primary Mental Abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

A Critique of Howard Gardner's Text - Frames of Mind

Glenn Schuyler
Walden University Student
1998-2004
http://microjumps.com/articles

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